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Glossary

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  • Abdomen: The part of the body between the chest and hips. It contains organs such as the stomach, liver, bowel and kidneys. Also called the belly or tummy.
  • Ablation: A treatment that uses needles or probes placed into the cancer to destroy cancer cells using heat, cold or chemicals.
  • Active surveillance (surveillance): When a person does not receive immediate treatment but instead has their condition (such as prostate cancer) monitored regularly, with the option of future treatment if the cancer shows signs of growing or changing.
  • Adjuvant therapy: Treatment given after the main treatment (such as chemotherapy after surgery) to help reduce the risk of the cancer returning.
  • Advanced cancer: Cancer that may not be able to be cured. It has often spread to other parts of the body (called secondary or metastatic cancer). Treatment can still help control the cancer and manage symptoms.
  • Adverse event: An unwanted effect that happens during or after using a medicine, medical device or treatment. It does not always mean the treatment caused the effect.
  • Allied health professional: A trained health professional who works as part of a healthcare team to support your care. This can include psychologists, social workers, occupational therapists, physiotherapists and dietitians.
  • Alternative therapies: Treatments that are used instead of standard medical care. Many of these therapies have not been scientifically tested for safety or effectiveness, and some therapies may interfere with cancer treatments or cause harm.
  • Androgen: A type of sex hormone that influences physical characteristics such as body hair growth and voice changes. The main androgen, testosterone, is mainly produced in the testicles.
  • Bacillus Calmette Guérin (BCG): A vaccine originally developed to prevent tuberculosis that is also used as an immunotherapy to treat some types of bladder cancer.
  • Benign: Not cancerous or malignant. A benign tumour does not spread to other parts of the body.
  • Biomarker: A substance in the body that can be measured to give information about a disease or how well treatment is working. Biomarkers can be found in the blood, tissue or tumours, or seen on scans, and may help with diagnosis and treatment planning.
  • Biopsy: The removal of a small sample of cells or tissue from the body for examination under a microscope to help diagnose a disease.
  • Bladder: A hollow, muscular organ in the pelvis that stores urine.
  • Blinded trial/study: A type of clinical trial where participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment being tested or another treatment (such as a placebo or standard treatment). This helps make sure the results are fair and not influenced by expectations.
  • Bone metastases (bone secondaries): Cancer that has spread to the bones from another part of the body.
  • Bone scan: A test that creates pictures of the bones. A small amount of radioactive dye is injected into a vein and travels to the bones, where it is detected by a special scanner.
  • Brachytherapy: A type of internal radiation treatment where a source of radiation is placed inside the body, close to or inside the cancer, to destroy cancer cells. It may be temporary or permanent.
  • BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation: Changes (mutations) in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes, which help repair damage in cells. These mutations increase the risk of some cancers, including prostate, breast and ovarian cancer, and can be passed down through families.
  • Cancer: A disease in which abnormal cells grow and divide in an uncontrolled way. These cells can invade nearby tissues and may spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system, forming secondary (metastatic) tumours.
  • Carcinoma: A type of cancer that starts in cells lining the surfaces of the body, such as the skin, internal organs or glands (called epithelial cells).
  • Carcinoma in situ: Abnormal cells in the lining of the body that are still confined to where they started and have not spread into nearby tissues. It may develop into cancer if not treated.
  • Castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC): See hormone-resistant prostate cancer.
  • Catheter: A thin, flexible tube that is inserted into the body to allow fluids to be drained or put in. For example, a urinary catheter drains urine from the bladder.
  • Cell: The basic building blocks of the body. All parts of the body are made up of cells, which are specialised to carry out different functions.
  • Chemoradiation (chemoradiotherapy): Treatment where chemotherapy and radiation therapy are given as part of the same course of treatment, sometimes at the same time.
  • Chemotherapy: A cancer treatment that uses drugs to kill cancer cells or slow their growth. It may be given on its own or with other treatments and can also be used to help control symptoms.
  • Complementary therapy: Treatments that are not part of standard medical care but are used alongside it. They may help improve wellbeing and quality of life, and can help manage cancer symptoms and side effects from treatment.
  • Complete response: When all signs of cancer disappear after treatment. This does not always mean the cancer has been cured.
  • Consent: Giving permission for something to be done, such as agreeing to a treatment after understanding the benefits and risks.
  • Control group: In a clinical trial, the group of participants who receive the standard treatment or another comparison treatment (not the treatment being tested). Their results are compared with those of the group receiving the new treatment.
  • Controlled trial: A type of clinical trial that compares one treatment with another (or more) to find out which works better. People are usually placed into groups at random.
  • CT scan (computerised tomography scan): A scan that uses X-rays to create detailed, cross-sectional pictures of the inside of the body.
  • Curative treatment: Treatment that aims to cure the disease by removing or destroying the cancer.
  • Cystectomy: Surgery to remove part (partial cystectomy) or all of the bladder (radical cystectomy). Nearby lymph nodes and, in some cases, other organs may also be removed, depending on the type and extent of the cancer.
  • Cystitis: Inflammation of the bladder lining.
  • Cystoscopy: A procedure that uses a thin tube with a light and camera (called a cystoscope) to look inside the bladder and urethra. It can also be used to take tissue samples or treat small tumours.
  • Diagnosis: Identifying and naming a person’s disease.
  • Digital rectal examination (DRE): An examination where a doctor gently inserts a gloved finger into the back passage (anus) to feel for any changes in the rectum or nearby organs, such as the prostate.
  • Disease-free survival: The length of time after treatment that a person remains alive without any signs of cancer.
  • Disease progression: When cancer grows or spreads despite treatment, or new areas of cancer appear.
  • Double-blind trial: A type of clinical trial in which neither the participants nor the researchers know which treatment each person is receiving (either the new treatment(s) being tested or the control treatment, such as standard care). This helps prevent bias and ensures the results are not influenced by expectations.
  • Duration of response: The length of time that a cancer responds to treatment before it starts to grow again.
  • Early cancer: Cancer that is found at an early stage. It is usually found before it has spread to other parts of the body and may be able to be cured.
  • Eligibility criteria: The requirements used to decide whether a clinical trial is suitable for a person to take part in. These may include factors such as age, type and stage of cancer, previous treatments and features of the tumour.
  • Endpoint: A measure used to assess how well a treatment works in a clinical trial. Primary endpoints measure outcomes that answer the main (most important) question being studied, such as whether a new treatment is better at preventing disease-related death than the standard treatment. Secondary endpoints measure other relevant outcomes.
  • Ethics: The standards used to make sure clinical trials are fair, safe and conducted responsibly. All trials must be reviewed and approved by an independent ethics committee before they can begin.
  • Experimental group: In a clinical trial, the group of participants who receive the treatment being tested.
  • External beam radiation therapy (EBRT) (external radiotherapy): Radiation therapy that delivers high energy radiation to the cancer from outside the body.
  • Familial cancer centre: A specialist service that provides genetic counselling and support for people with a family history of cancer.
  • First-line treatment: The initial treatment used to target cancer.
  • General practitioner (GP): A doctor who provides general medical care. They help you manage your overall health, support treatment decisions, and work with specialists to provide ongoing care.
  • Genes: The units inside cells that control how the body grows and works. Genes are passed from parents to their children.
  • Genetic (genetics): Related to genes. A condition is genetic if it is caused by a change in a gene, and it may be inherited.
  • Genetic and genomic testing: Tests that look at genes. Genetic testing looks for inherited changes passed down through families and can show cancer risk. Genomic testing looks at changes in the cancer itself and helps guide treatment decisions.
  • Gleason score: A system used to grade prostate cancer based on how the cancer cells look under a microscope. Two areas of the cancer are graded and added together to give a score that helps show how quickly the cancer is likely to grow. See also Grade Group system.
  • Grade: A description of how abnormal cancer cells look under a microscope. Low-grade cancers tend to grow more slowly, while high-grade cancers are more likely to grow and spread more quickly.
  • Grade Group system: A newer system used to grade prostate cancer from 1 to 5, with Grade Group 1 being the least likely to grow and spread, and Grade Group 5 the most likely. It is based on the Gleason score and provides a clearer way to describe how the cancer may behave.
  • Groin: The area where the upper thigh meets the lower abdomen. This area contains lymph nodes.
  • Hereditary: Passed from parents to their children through genes.
  • Hormone-dependent (hormone-sensitive): Describes a cancer that grows in response to certain hormones, such as prostate cancer and some breast cancers.
  • Hormones: Natural chemicals in the body that travel in the bloodstream and help control how the body works. They affect many functions, including growth, development and sexual function. Some cancers, such as prostate cancer, can grow in response to hormones like testosterone.
  • Hormone-resistant prostate cancer: Prostate cancer that continues to grow or spread despite very low levels of testosterone (the main male sex hormone), usually due to hormone therapy. Also called castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).
  • Hormone therapy (hormone treatment): Treatment that blocks or lowers the levels of hormones in the body, which can help slow or stop the growth of some cancers that depend on hormones.
  • Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC): An independent group that reviews and approves clinical trials to make sure they meet ethical standards, are safe, well planned, and protect the rights and wellbeing of participants.
  • Immune system: The body’s natural defence system that helps fight infection and disease, including cancer. It includes cells, tissues and organs such as white blood cells, lymph nodes and the spleen.
  • Immunotherapy: A type of cancer treatment that helps the body’s immune system recognise and fight cancer cells.
  • Informed consent: Giving permission for a treatment or agreeing to take part in a clinical trial after receiving and understanding all the relevant information, including the benefits and risks.
  • Local recurrence: When cancer returns in the same place as the original cancer.
  • Locally advanced cancer: Cancer that has spread to nearby tissues or organs.
  • Localised prostate cancer: Early-stage prostate cancer that has not spread beyond the prostate gland.
  • Lymph node dissection (lymphadenectomy): Surgery to remove one or more lymph nodes. This may be done to see if the cancer has spread or to treat cancer in the lymph nodes.
  • Lymph nodes (lymph glands): Small, bean-shaped lumps of tissue found in groups throughout the body. They help protect the body against disease and infection as part of the immune system.
  • Lymphocyte: A type of white blood cell that helps the body fight infection and disease as part of the immune system.
  • Malignant: Cancerous. Malignant cells can spread to other parts of the body (metastasise). Opposite of benign.
  • Medical oncologist: A doctor who specialises in treating cancer with medicines such as chemotherapy, hormone therapy, immunotherapy and targeted therapy.
  • Medsafe: New Zealand’s medicines and medical devices safety authority. It regulates medicines and medical devices to ensure they are safe, effective and of good quality, and monitors their safety after they are approved for use.
  • Metastasis (plural: metastases): Cancer that has spread from the original (primary) cancer to another part of the body. For example, prostate cancer that has spread to the bones is called bone metastasis. Also known as secondary or advanced cancer.
  • Metastatic cancer: Cancer that has spread from where it started to other parts of the body.
  • Microscopic spread (micrometastases): Cancer that has spread from the original site but is too small to be seen on scans or during surgery.
  • Multidisciplinary team (MDT): A team of health professionals who work together to plan and manage treatment and care. The team may include doctors, nurses and allied health professionals.
  • MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan: A scan that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed pictures of the inside of the body.
  • Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: Bladder cancer that has spread into or beyond the muscle layer of the bladder.
  • Mutation: A change in a gene.
  • Needle core biopsy: A procedure in which a small sample of tissue is removed with a needle and examined under a microscope.
  • Neoadjuvant treatment: Treatment given before the main treatment (usually surgery) to shrink the cancer and improve the chance of the treatment working well. For example, chemotherapy given before surgery.
  • Nephrectomy: Surgery to remove all or part of a kidney. This is called a partial nephrectomy if only part of the kidney is removed, or a radical nephrectomy if the whole kidney is removed.
  • Non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer: Bladder cancer that has not grown into the muscle layer of the bladder. Also called superficial bladder cancer.
  • Nuclear medicine specialist: A doctor who specialises in using radioactive substances to diagnose and treat disease, including cancer.
  • Oncologist: A doctor who specialises in treating cancer.
  • Open-label trial: A clinical trial in which both the participants and the researchers know which treatment is being given, unlike a blinded trial where this information is hidden.
  • Orchidectomy/orchiectomy: Surgery to remove one or both testicles.
  • Overall survival: The length of time from the start of a clinical trial or treatment until death from any cause. It is a common way to measure how effective a treatment is.
  • Palliative care: Care that aims to improve quality of life for people with a serious or life-limiting illness, their families or carers. It focuses on managing symptoms and supporting physical, emotional, cultural, spiritual and social needs. It can be given alongside active treatment at any stage of illness. It is not just for people who are about to die, although it does include end-of-life care.
  • Partial response: A reduction in the size of a cancer in response to treatment, without it disappearing completely, and with no evidence of the cancer growing or spreading.
  • Pathologist: A specialist doctor who examines tissue, cells and body fluids to diagnose disease, including cancer, and to identify the type of cancer.
  • Pelvis: The lower part of the body between the hips, containing the bladder, lower bowel and reproductive organs.
  • Performance status: A way of describing how well a person is able to carry out everyday activities. It is often used by doctors to help plan treatment.
  • Peripheral neuropathy: Nerve damage that can cause weakness, numbness, tingling or pain, most commonly in the hands and feet. It can be a side effect of some cancer treatments, including chemotherapy.
  • PET scan: Positron emission tomography scan. A scan in which a person is injected with a small amount of radioactive solution. Cancerous areas take up more of this solution than normal tissue, so they appear brighter on the scan. PET scans are sometimes used to help diagnose or stage cancer.
  • PET–CT scan: A medical imaging test that combines a PET (positron emission tomography) scan with a CT (computed tomography) scan. In a PET scan, a small amount of radioactive tracer is injected into the body, which helps highlight areas of high metabolic activity, such as cancer cells, making them appear brighter. The CT scan provides detailed images of the body’s internal structures. When used together, a PET–CT scan gives a more accurate and detailed picture of the location and activity of cancer within the body.
  • PHARMAC: New Zealand’s government agency that decides which medicines and related products are funded. Its goal is to make medicines affordable and accessible for people.
  • Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee (PBAC): An independent statutory body that makes recommendations and provides advice to the Australian Government Health Minister about which medicines should be listed on the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS).
  • Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS): A government-funded scheme that subsidises the cost of listed prescription medicines, making them more affordable for Australian residents.
  • Placebo: A dummy treatment (such as a pill, injection or other therapy) that does not contain an active ingredient. It may be used in some clinical trials so results can be compared with a new treatment. Participants are usually not told whether they are receiving the placebo or the active treatment, so that the study results are fair and not influenced.
  • Precancerous (precancer): A term used to describe cells or a condition in which cells appear abnormal but are not yet cancer. If left untreated, these cells may develop into cancer. Finding and treating precancerous cells early (often through screening) can prevent cancer from developing.
  • Primary cancer (primary tumour): The original cancer or the place in the body where the cancer first started. Cancer cells from the primary cancer can spread to other parts of the body, where they may form secondary cancers.
  • Prognosis: The likely outlook or expected outcome of a person’s disease, including whether it is likely to be cured or controlled with treatment.
  • Progression: When cancer grows larger or spreads to new areas of the body.
  • Progression-free survival (PFS): The length of time after starting a clinical trial that a person lives without the cancer growing or spreading, or until death from any cause. PFS can help show how well a treatment is working and may be measured sooner than overall survival.
  • Prostate: A gland in the male reproductive system that surrounds the urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the penis). It produces fluid that mixes with sperm to form semen.
  • Prostatectomy: Surgery to remove all or part of the prostate gland. A radical prostatectomy removes the entire prostate as well as some surrounding tissue.
  • Prostate specific antigen (PSA): A protein produced by normal and cancerous prostate cells and found in the blood. PSA levels can be measured with a blood test and may help detect prostate cancer or monitor how well treatment is working.
  • Prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA): A protein found on prostate cells, including prostate cancer cells. It can be used in imaging tests or treatments to help find and target prostate cancer.
  • Protocol: In clinical trials, a detailed plan that outlines the aims, methods and reasons for the study. In treatment such as chemotherapy, a protocol (also called a regimen) describes the recommended drugs, doses and timing to be used.
  • Quality of life: A person’s overall comfort and wellbeing, including their physical, emotional, sexual, social, spiritual and financial needs. In research, quality of life refers to how a disease or its treatment affects a person’s daily life, including symptoms and side effects.
  • Radiation: Energy in the form of waves or particles, such as gamma rays, X-rays and ultraviolet (UV) rays. This energy can damage cells and is used in radiation therapy to destroy cancer cells.
  • Radiotherapy (radiation therapy): The use of targeted radiation, usually X-rays, to kill cancer cells or damage them so they cannot grow and spread.
  • Randomisation: In clinical trials, the process of allocating people to different groups by chance, rather than by choice, to help ensure the results are fair and not biased.
  • Randomised controlled trial (RCT): A clinical trial that compares a new (experimental) treatment with the best current (standard) treatment. Participants are randomly assigned to different groups, usually by a computer, to ensure the results are fair and unbiased.
  • Recurrence: The return of a disease, such as cancer, after a period of improvement (remission). It may return in the same place or in another part of the body.
  • Renal cell carcinoma (RCC): The most common type of kidney cancer. It starts in the cells lining the small tubes (tubules) in the kidney. There are several subtypes, including clear cell, papillary and chromophobe renal cell carcinoma.
  • Research: The process of studying something in a careful and systematic way to learn new information. Cancer research looks at new treatments, ways to prevent cancer, improve diagnosis, identify who is at risk, and reduce treatment side effects.
  • Resection: Surgery to remove part or all of an organ or tumour affected by disease.
  • Response rate: A measure used in clinical trials to show how many people’s cancer responds to a treatment. This includes cancers that shrink (partial response) or disappear for a period of time (complete response).
  • Risk factors: Things that may increase a person’s chance of developing a disease. For example, smoking is a risk factor for lung cancer, and sun exposure is a risk factor for skin cancer.
  • SABR (stereotactic ablative radiotherapy)/SBRT (stereotactic body radiotherapy): A type of radiotherapy that delivers very precise, high doses of radiation to a tumour over a small number of treatments.
  • Screening: Testing people for a disease before any symptoms appear, to help find it early. Screening is usually offered through organised programs and uses simple, reliable tests.
  • Second opinion: Getting advice from another specialist to confirm a diagnosis or a recommended course of treatment.
  • Side effects: Unintended or unwanted effects of a drug or treatment. Most side effects can be managed.
  • Sponsor (trial sponsor): The organisation, institution or company responsible for organising, funding and overseeing a clinical trial, and ensuring it meets legal and ethical requirements.
  • Stable disease: A term used when cancer is not getting better or worse. Tests and scans show the cancer is staying about the same size.
  • Stage: The size of a cancer and how far it has spread in the body. Staging is used to help decide the best treatment.
  • Staging: The process of doing tests and scans to determine how large a cancer is and how far it has spread in the body. Staging helps doctors decide the best treatment. For most cancers, there are four stages, from stage I or 1 (a small, localised cancer) to stage IV or 4 (cancer that has spread to other parts of the body). Doctors may also use a more detailed system called TNM, which describes tumour size (T), lymph node involvement (N), and whether the cancer has spread (M).
  • Standard treatment: The best available treatment currently in use, based on the results of past research.
  • Surgery: Treatment that involves an operation to remove or repair part of the body. It is performed by a surgeon and may be used to remove cancer.
  • Survivorship: The health and wellbeing of a person after a cancer diagnosis, including during and after treatment.
  • Symptoms: Changes in the body that a person feels or notices, which may be caused by an illness or treatment. Examples include pain, tiredness or a rash.
  • Systemic treatment: Treatment with drugs that travel through the bloodstream to reach and affect cancer cells throughout the body. Types of systemic treatment include chemotherapy, targeted therapy and immunotherapy.
  • Targeted therapy: Treatment that uses drugs to target specific features of cancer cells to stop the cancer growing and spreading.
  • Testicles(testes): Two egg-shaped glands found in the scrotum that produce sperm and testosterone.
  • Testosterone: A sex hormone mainly made in the testicles. It plays an important role in the body, including the development of physical characteristics such as body hair and voice changes, and sexual function.
  • Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA): The Australian Government body that regulates and approves medicines and medical treatments to ensure they are safe and effective before they can be prescribed or sold.
  • Toxicity: The side effects caused by a treatment, which can range from mild to severe.
  • Translational research: Research that helps turn findings from laboratory studies into new treatments or approaches that can be used in clinical practice and benefit patients.
  • Tumour: A lump or abnormal growth of tissue on or in the body. A tumour may be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).
  • Ultrasound: A scan that uses sound waves to create a picture of the inside of the body. It may be used to help check the size and position of a tumour.
  • Ureters: Tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
  • Urethra: The tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. In people with a penis, it also carries semen.
  • Urinary system: The system in the body that removes waste products from the blood and makes urine. It includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.
  • Urine: Liquid waste produced by the body and passed out when you urinate. It is sometimes called wee or pee.
  • Urologist: A doctor who specialises in diagnosing and treating diseases of the urinary system in all people, and the male reproductive system.
  • Urothelial carcinoma: A type of cancer that starts in the urothelium, the layer of cells that lines the bladder and other parts of the urinary system. It is sometimes called transitional cell carcinoma (TCC).
  • Urothelium: The inner lining of the bladder and other parts of the urinary system.
  • Vas deferens: A pair of tubes that carry sperm from the testicles to the urethra.
  • White blood cells: One of the three main types of blood cells. They help the body fight infection. Types include neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes. Also called leukocytes.